The Decolonisation of Africa 1959-1964 Essay Example for Free

The Decolonisation of Africa 1959-1964 Essay How much was Britain ready to hold power over decolonisation in Africa somewhere in the range of 1959 and 1964? By 1959 decolonisation in British Africa was well under way, for instance, the Gold Coast in West Africa had gotten autonomous in 1957, Nigeria and Sierra Leone were well en route to freedom, and fomentation and advances towards autonomy were at that point occurring in Kenya and Tanganyika in Eastern Africa. By 1964 this had spread all through Britain’s African regions and a lot more had either gotten autonomous or begun their excursion and improvement towards autonomy, as the â€Å"political face of the mainland was transformed†[1]. This article will inspect what it was that prompted this tremendous change in strategy towards Africa, from a period toward the start of the 1950s when nobody expected any of Britain’s states to get free inside an age, let alone inside 10 years, to a period in the mid-1960s when Britain’s pioneer assets in Africa were seriously lessening and there was an away from of strategy towards decolonisation there. Indeed, even in 1959, as Hemming perceives, â€Å"a meeting of East African governors concurred that the possible plan of autonomy would be: Tanganyika in 1970, Kenya in 1975 and Uganda somewhere close to the two†[2]. Truth be told Tanganyika picked up freedom in 1961, Kenya in 1963 and Uganda in 1962. As Hemming distinguishes, â€Å"a multi year plan had been diminished by 80 percent†[3]. This exposition will take a gander at such inquiries as: How would we be able to pass judgment if Britain was in charge? ; Was Britain in charge of the pace, or the real procedure of occasions of how autonomy came to fruition? ; Was Britain in charge of who to move capacity to? This article will endeavor to address these inquiries by inspecting the entirety of the different issues, and weights with which Britain was confronted in regards to its African settlements, which can been believed to have assumed the responsibility for decolonisation in Africa somewhere in the range of 1959 and 1964 out of Britain’s hands. It will take a gander at whether Britain truly needed to keep up control of its provincial regions, or whether, when Britain had chosen not to keep its states, it really would not like to stay in charge of decolonisation in Africa. Now and again did it really make it simpler for England to permit control of African decolonisation **** out of its hands. This exposition will look at whether it is sure that once the ‘wind of change’ of African patriotism started spreading through Africa, that Britain was not so much in charge, and, will analyze the degree to which Britain retained control, on the off chance that it did by any means. It will take a gander at the weights the British government needed to manage, for instance, pressures from the UN to end British dominion, pressures from the US, and weights from different individuals from the Commonwealth, just as from the remainder of Europe. It will analyze the quality of provincial patriotism and the degree to which this assumed the responsibility for decolonisation in Africa away from Britain, or if nothing else constrained the British government to change and adjust its approach so as to adapt and arrangement to this danger. This paper will see pressures at home in Britain, from individuals from the administration and those in restriction just as British popular supposition, and the degree to which this influenced Britain’s strategy over decolonisation. It will likewise take a gander at the effect and impact that the procedure of decolonisation being sought after by other European supreme powers in Africa had on Britain’s decolonisation strategy. It will take a gander at how much the craving of Britain to keep up its job as a politically influential nation, and keep up, for instance, the extraordinary relationship with America, and its situation in the Commonwealth, had on British strategy over decolonisation and whether this longing prompted Britain seeking after an approach bearing which it in any case would not have done. At last, having inspected every one of these weights and occasions which influenced Britain’s decolonisation strategy in Africa, this paper will endeavor to analyze how much Britain was, or was not, ready to hold command over this procedure, and influence it in a way which was worthy to Britain. It will at that point attempt and make an evaluation, regardless of whether Britain retained power over decolonisation in Africa in the period from 1959 to 1964, and, if Britain was in charge, the degree of this control.

A Short Essay on Beauty Essay Example for Free

A Short Essay on Beauty Essay Magnificence is characterized as the quality present in a thing or individual that gives extraordinary joy or profound fulfillment to the brain, in the case of emerging from tangible appearances (as shape, shading, sound, and so on ), an important plan or example, or something different (as a character where high otherworldly characteristics are show). Be that as it may, magnificence has been subject of discussion regarding its definition. So as to perceive what is uncommon about delight in excellence, we should move the concentration back to consider what is exceptional about the judgment of taste, which decides magnificence in an item. For Kant, the judgment of taste claims â€Å"universal validity†, which he depicts as follows:†¦ when [a man] worships a thing and calls it wonderful, he requests a similar pleasure from others. He judges not only for himself, however for all men, and afterward discusses magnificence as though it were a property of things. Along these lines he says that the thing is delightful; and it isn't as though he relies on others concurring with him in his judgment of loving inferable from his having discovered them in such concurrence on various events, however he requests this understanding of them. He accuses them on the off chance that they judge in an unexpected way, and denies them taste, which he despite everything expects of them as something they should have; and to this degree it isn't available to men to state: Every one has his own taste. This would be proportionate to stating that there is nothing of the sort as taste, I. e. no stylish judgment equipped for making a legitimate case upon the consent everything being equal. (Kant 1790, p. 52; see additionally pp. 136â€139. Nonetheless, having said that, there is craftsmanship and engineering far and wide which gives all inclusive intrigue. For instance, the Cathedral of Notre Dame could undoubtedly enchant a Hindu family, without them having next to no or no information on its social or strict hugeness. The Taj Mahal and the Statue of David could ooze incredible measures of sublimity to individuals of each social status. What is it in Art and Architecture that stirs such delight and fame? Corbusier once stated, â€Å"The Architect, by his game plans of structures, understands a request which is an unadulterated making of his soul; through structures and shapes he influences our faculties to an intense degree and incites plastic feelings; by the connections which he makes he makes significant echoes in us, he gives us the proportion of a request which we feel to be as per that of our reality, he decides the different developments of our heart and of our understanding; it is then we experience the feeling of excellence. † The above expressed closely-held conviction could possibly be the explanation of Art and Architecture being a natural and quintessential piece of the worldwide social legacy. Additionally, Art and Architecture has likewise viewed as energizers to create bliss. As Fredrick M. Padelford referenced, â€Å"Indeed, I believe that we are not in the least mindful of the colossal social resource that consistently great design would be. Extravagant a city in which the entirety of the structures are delightful, and follow the impact on the lives of the occupants. In any case, it would add extraordinarily to the joy of individuals, for, as has been watched, it is the typical capacity of excellence to fulfill us. Except if we have permitted ourselves to get infected, joy will go to excellence as normally as blossoms go to the sun† (Frederick M. Padelford, â€Å"The Civic Control of Architecture,† American Journal of Sociology, July 1908, 45-46). ] This short exposition however it doesn't finish up with an all around characterized clarification of magnificence, it will give one a thought regarding some the different components, which frames a noticeable impact on excellence.

Music Festivals to Visit in the USA

Music Festivals to Visit in the USA Top Music Festivals in the USA Home›Informative Posts›Top Music Festivals in the USA Informative PostsThe USA can boast of a variety of music festivals that attract all kind of travelers from around the world.Do not miss your chance to listen to your favorite songs at the perfect get-away locations.Afropunk FestThe name speaks for itself: this music festival features renowned artists that represent black and mixed race communities. Among this year’s headliners, you might like Michael Kiwanuka, Jaytranada, Soul II Soul. Come to Brooklyn, New York, on August 26-27 and you won’t regret it.Made in AmericaThis is another must-visit festival that marks the end of the summer with the performances of artists on Jay Z’s label, who, by the way, is the founder of the event. Book a ticket to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for September 2-3 if you are a true fan of Jay Z, Chainsmokers, or Kaskade.Electric ZooFor all those dance enthusiasts who appreciate music for its rhythms, there is no thing like Electric Zoo festival on Randall’s Island, New York. Kick up your heels to the best performance of DJ Snake, Above Beyond, deadmau5 Eric Prydz, and Galantis among others. Not so much of a dancer? Don’t worry â€" you have plenty of time till the beginning of festival on the September 1 to nail those moves.Austin City LimitsFor all we know, there are people who go to a festival with the sole purpose to enjoy music, whilst there are also those for whom these outings mean much more, namely, spending time with their families, indulging themselves with delicious food, and going on a spending spree at the art markets. If you belong to the second type, do not hesitate to purchase an entrance ticket for the Austin City Limits Festival, which takes place in Zilker Park, Austin. While this year’s headliners â€" Jay Z, Red Hot Chilli Peppers, The Killers â€" are a good enough reason to go, you will also like other entertainments that this festival has to offer, and plenty of time as well to try everything, given that it all lasts for two weekends â€" October 6-8, 13-15.Sasquatch!This is definitely one of the most popular US festivals among indie-music lovers. What makes this festival a hot destination, besides an outstanding line-up featuring LCD Soundsystem, Twenty One Pilots, Chance the Rapper, and The Shins, is the date when it takes place, which is also the Memorial Day weekend â€" May 26-29.This list of festivals is a decent alternative to the most famous ones, such as Coachella or Lollapalooza. So, choose what is more appealing to you, pack your backpack, and enjoy great music along with the festive atmosphere.

Discovery Of Raised Bread in Egypt Essay - 1559 Words

The piece of art that I will be discussing about is how the Ancient Egyptians first discovered the art of making modern bread, over 4000 years ago during the Neolithic era? The Ancient Egyptian lives simply depended on agricultures; however, the majority of the people were involved in farming. Moreover, when the Ancient Egyptians discovered raised bread, the Egyptians understood the value of having leavened bread part of their lives. Bread was part of a daily diet in their lives, it was essential nourishment. Indeed, bread was simply, the staff of life for the Egyptians and for all of us around the world today. Finally, since the Ancient Egyptians discovered raised bread, perhaps they may led the first Civilization. In 3000 B.C. was†¦show more content†¦Nevertheless, during the Neolithic era, many of the development of the agriculture and farming occurred around that era. However, the Egyptians still had some difficulties with their agriculture and farming to grow periodically because they had limited resources for food. In addition, the main reason the Egyptians had limited resources of food, was the lack of water. The lack of water affected the ancient Egyptians farmers tremendously, the effect on growing crops and raising animals. The Nile River in Egypt was the main resources for farmers and for the rest of the Egyptians to live; The Egyptians lives depended on the Nile River. In addition, when the Egyptians farmers had to raise crops or animal, they would have to wait until the Nile River would get flooded. The Egyptians farmers would harvest their lands up to three times of year. Subsequently, while the Nile River will get flooded during its season, the mud that it will compose would sit onto a surrounding area, until it was form into soil. The soil was used to make crops, therefore, wheat was one of those crops that were grown very often in the Egyptians farm lands. Indeed, the Egyptians discovered that wheat could be pulverized and made into paste. They would set the paste over a fire to make flat bread and the type of wheat that they were using was called emmer, meaning varieties of wheat. (Unknown, . History of Bread. Bread Info . W.J. Rayment,Show MoreRelatedChemistry Project1446 Words   |  6 Pagesand wanted to find out some scientific facts about fermentation. The primary benefit of fermentation is the conversion of sugars and other carbohydrates, e.g., converting juice into wine, grains into beer, carbohydrates into carbon dioxide to leaven bread, and sugars in vegetables into preservative organic acids. INTRODUCTION Fermentation typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobicRead MoreBattlestar Galactic A Space Exodus2586 Words   |  11 Pagesfounding Israel, but when looked at closely these two stories share many commonalities. The book of Exodus, found in The Torah as well as the old testament of the Bible, tells the story of the enslaved Jewish people who are lead, by Moses, out of Egypt and after a long and harrowing journey arrive at a divinely promised homeland. In the following books of Numbers and Deuteronomy we learn that Moses is forbidden from entering the Promised Land after disobeying God. Battlestar Galactica also featuresRead MoreIceman - Preservation2915 Words   |  12 Pageshistorical concept of body art? Body art is one of the oldest forms of creative expression known to man-kind, cave paintings date it back to almost 8000BC. The spread of tattooing although presumed to have began much earlier was first recorded in Egypt during the building of the pyramids. When the Egyptians extended their empire, tattooing extended as well to civilizations such as Crete, Greece, Persia, and Arabia. Later on in 2000BC this form of body art also reached china. With almost every cultureRead More iceman - preservation Essay2849 Words   |  12 Pageshistorical concept of body art? Body art is one of the oldest forms of creative expression known to man-kind, cave paintings date it back to almost 8000BC. The spread of tattooing although presumed to have began much earlier was first recorded in Egypt during the building of the pyramids. When the Egyptians extended their empire, tattooing extended as well to civilizations such as Crete, Greece, Persia, and Arabia. Later on in 2000BC this form of body art also reached china. With almost every cultureRead MoreReligion : A Powerful Force3704 Words   |  15 Pageswho craved power and control over others would often use religion as a tool of manipulation and fear. A casual glance of history tells us that complete civilizations have been built, grown and maintained around elaborate religious systems, ancient Egypt being a prime example. †¢ Write a paragraph or two about either the Egyptian or Mesopotamian religion. Comment on such things as the nature of the religious faith, major deities, aspects of the religion, and their views of the afterlife. Read MoreA Critical Thinking Exercise : The Role Of Religion During World Civilizations3861 Words   |  16 Pagesoften use religion as a tool of manipulation and fear toward the end goal of having rule over others. A casual glance of history tells us that complete civilizations have been built, grown and maintained around elaborate religious systems, ancient Egypt being a prime example. †¢ Write a paragraph or two about either the Egyptian or Mesopotamian religion. Comment on such things as the nature of the religious faith, major deities, aspects of the religion, and their views of the afterlife. EgyptianRead MoreAnalyzing the Isareli-Palestinian Conflict2775 Words   |  11 Pagesof their ancestors, the faith of their people, and the wrath of that same people has created such emotional turmoil that neither side is even seeing clearly anymore. The history of the holy land and the Israelites begins when the enslaved Jews fled Egypt and were led into Exodus by Moses and then Joshua. Since that time, the land has been past along many different hands and has been the prize of many conquests, most especially Greek and Syrian rulers. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire inRead MoreEssay on Analysis of The Essenes and the Dead Sea Scrolls4626 Words   |  19 Pages the linen they were wrapped in was made from flax which had been harvested in the time of Christ that the scrolls were seen to have been copied around 100 B.C.† (Albright, 1954, 404). From the time of the initial discovery there was also an upsurge in archeological expeditions to the area. One such expedition was in 1949 when Father Roland de Vaux, Dominican Director of the French Ecole Biblique et Archeologique at Jerusalem and Professor Lankester Harding the BritishRead MoreEssay on Civilized Man Vs Early Man2294 Words   |  10 PagesEveryday Life Through The Ages, p 13 ) Burial sites that have been discovered recently allow us to peek into the remote past. These discoveries support the idea of an awareness of and homage paid to the spirits and natural forces that shaped the world that these prehistoric people lived in. Several remote tribes have been discovered this century . Prior to their discovery, these remote tribes, some numbering in the many thousands, believed that they were the only people on the earth. ( The Third ChimpanzeeRead MoreThe Birth of Civilization18947 Words   |  76 Pagesthe development of civilizations in Mesoamerica? 1 he earliest humans lived by hunting, fishing, and collecting wild plants. Around 10,000 years ago, they learned to cultivate plants, herd animals, and make airtight pottery for storage. These discoveries transformed them from gatherers to producers, allowing them to grow in number and to lead a settled life. Beginning about 5,000 years ago, a far more complex way of life began to appear in some parts of the world. In these places humans learned

Bishop Charles Mason - 1348 Words

BISHOP C.H. MASON One of the most significant figures in the rise and spread of the modern Pentecostal movement, Charles Harrison Mason was born September 8, 1866. Along with his mother he attended the Mt. Olive Baptist Church near Plumerville where the pastor, Mason’s half-brother, the Reverend I.S. Nelson, baptized him in an atmosphere of praise and thankgiving. From that point in his life, Mason went throughout the area of southern Arkansas as a lay preacher, giving his testimony and working with souls on the mourners’ bench, especially during the summer camp meetings. Mason was licensed and ordained in 1891 at Preston, Arkansas, but held back from full-time ministry to marry Alice Saxton, the beautiful daughter of his†¦show more content†¦Bell and H.A. Goss issued a call to convene a general council of â€Å"all Pentecostal saints and Church Of God In Christ followers,† to meet the following April at Hot Springs, Arkansas. This invitation went only to the white saints. On the first week of April 1914, Mason traveled to the Hot Springs convention to invoke God’s blessings on the newly formed General Council of the Assemblies of God. He preached to more than four hundred white Pentecostal preachers. By 1917 Church Of God In Christ congregations were organized in Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, and Brooklyn. Evangelists were also at work in Harlem. In 1935 a storefront church was opened at 137th and Lenox Avenue, placing Bishop Mason’s message before the largest urban black population in America. Despite this new racial separation, Mason maintained a warm fellowship with the white Pentecostals. He preached in their conventions and maintained a strong fellowship with two prominent white Pentecostal leaders: A.J. Thomlinson of the Church of God (CG, Cleveland, Tennessee) and J.H. King of the Pentecostal Holiness Church (PHC, Franklin Springs, Georgia). In 1952, Mason was the elder statesman attending the Pentecostal world Conference at London, England. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) developed a file on C.H. Mason because of his pacifism and interracialism. In 1918 some white followers of Mason in Los Angeles were identified as being ofShow MoreRelatedTradition and Dissent in English Christianity from the Sixteenth to Nineteenth Centuries1554 Words   |  7 PagesProtestants (Wolffe, 2008). By the end of Elizabeth’s I forty five year reign, the majority of people in English society were Protestant. As the older, mainly Catholic members of society had died through old age (Christianity in Britain, 2011). Knight and Mason (2006) describe a dissenter during the Tutor period as one who refuses to conform to Anglicanism. They also add that Roman Catholics during this period would be viewed as Dissenters or Nonconformists. After Elizabeth I died James VI (1566-1625) ofRead MoreThe Importance Of Ethnography In Social Work971 Words   |  4 Pagesconvention due to C.O.G.I.C being founded there in 1907 by Bishop Charles Harrison Mason. Throughout the interview, Mr. and Mrs. Thompson remain resolute regarding their religious beliefs and the impact it has had on them throughout their lives. Despite not completely remembering certain aspects of his life, Mr. Sam vividly remembers receiving salvation as a Christian during a 1968 tent-revival hosted by Solomon Temple C.O.G.I.C under Bishop Solomon. Tent – revivals are an occasional set of churchRead MoreReview Of The Ministry Of Music On The Black Church1430 Words   |  6 Pageslife and therefore Black worship. The Black Church understands worship to be a communal act of adoration towards God that may involve praise or petition via song, dance, music (use of instruments), recitation, meditation, chanting, and or prayer (Mason, 2016). According to Ja mes Cone, Black music is unity music because it unites†¦the hope and despair;†¦and it moves the people towards the direction of total liberation; and confronts the individual with the truth of black existence and affirms that blackRead MoreThe New Testament Canon.1295 Words   |  6 Pages New Testament Canon Charles Bragg CHHI 301- B02 02/02/2015 â€Æ' The Greek word â€Å"kanon† (G2834) , in today’s society we use the spelling â€Å"canon†. In theology, its chief application is to those books received as authoritative and making up our Bible. The Protestant canon includes 27 New Testament books. It is commonly said that the Protestant test of canonicity is â€Å"Inspiration†. That is, Protestants accept into their canon those books they believe to be immediately inspired by God and thereforeRead MoreThe Transformation Of The Unity Of God In The Church916 Words   |  4 Pagesthe church at Ephesus clearly states that the apostles were the first in order when it comes to the leadership gifts in the church. However, in modern culture, those who claim to be apostles seem to have been put on the back burner to the popes, bishops and pastors. This is true primarily because the modern church does not understand the role of an apostle. And, most people who call themselves apostles don’t actually unders tand the purpose and role that the gift played in the early church. It isRead More The Medieval Gothic Cathedral Essay3419 Words   |  14 Pages (Duby 1991: 4) Since there were often rivalries between the church and the state, a massive cathedral rising high above the town is one way of showing the strength of the church. In Capetian France (987-1328), royal officials often claimed that bishops and cardinals were getting away with some crimes because of what was known as benefit of clergy, immunity from prosecution in lay courts. There were major disputes between royal officials and the churches of Chartres, Poitiers Lyons - and hereRead More The Saga of the Tigua Indians Essay5049 Words   |  21 Pagesseventeen acres. T its height it had twenty housing projects built in the form of towering apartments, when most of Europe was nothing but primitive tribes. Terraces, garden apartments, churches, workshops and kitchens separated these projects. The masons were so skilled that the stones required no cement, and the carpenters cut wood in a way that the beams required no nails. When the Spanish finally found this city of legends they ere so impressed that they called it Pueblo de los Humanas, or theRead MoreWhy Did Judge Hall Choose John Jameson for Celia’s Defense? Essay4850 Words   |  20 Pagesthe Northwest Ordinance of 1787. By 1804 all the Northern states had passed laws to gradually abolish slavery. Congress banned the African slave-trade in 1808, although slavery grew in new states in the deep south. The Union was divided along the Mason Dixon Line into the North (free of slaves), and the South, where slavery remained legal.[5] Despite compromises in 1820 and 1850, the slavery issues exploded in the 1850s. Lincoln did not propose federal laws against slavery where it already existedRead MorePolygamy : Human Rights And Civil Liberties3424 Words   |  14 Pagescame to the public limelight in the 1990s when journalists and activists began pushing the government to enforce Canada’s polygamy laws. In 1992, the B.C. government, citing studies conducted by legal experts, refused to charge Winston Blackmore, the bishop of Bountiful, with polygamy because section 293 was likely inconsistent with the Charter’s freedom of religion (Bramham, 2008). In 2009, after unsuccessfully charging Blackmore and James Oler with polygamy, BC’s Attorney General sought out an advisoryRead MoreCeramics: Pottery and Clay17443 Words   |  70 PagesWhile Overbecks style was strongly linked to the arts and crafts movement there were other artists potters like George Ohr of Biloxi Mississippi whos unique approach to ceramics was not fully appreciated until he was rediscovered in the 1970s. Charles Binns founded the New York State College of Ceramics in 1900 and established the methodology of systematic research in the ceramics medium and the institution to do it in. Throughout the first half of the 20th century the vast majority ceramics production

Studying The Journey Of Mango Season English Literature Essay Free Essays

Mango season is an indefinable chef-d’oeuvre of Amulya Malladi. I am really impressed and proud to be a Telugu myself. This whole journey of Mango Season had been truly fantastic. We will write a custom essay sample on Studying The Journey Of Mango Season English Literature Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now I have ne’er thought that there would be a book on Telugu civilizations and we would be analysing the narrative for our literature surveies. But at the other terminal of the twine, even though I am an Indian, I had ne’er known all the civilizations and traditions of my really ain civilization and this is an eye-opener for me to turn over a new foliage and get down cognizing all the civilizations, and why do we pattern such civilizations in our Telugu community. Coming back to Mangifera indica season, I had identified 3 chief issues which are truly closed to my bosom. One of the chief issues I would wish to foreground in this novel is arranged matrimony versus love matrimony. This had ever been an issue debated in every Indian household when it comes to marriage. The daughter/ boy love person else but were asked to get married the individual chosen by their parents. This issue can clearly been seen in this novel as this whole narrative reflects on Priya who is confronting a struggle in taking an arranged or love matrimony. Arrange and love matrimonies have their ain advantages and disadvantages. Arranged matrimony shows a sense of regard and trust of the younger coevalss towards their seniors by obeying them in make up one’s minding our future life spouse. While, on the other manus, love matrimony portrays our bravery and finding in contending for our love and to be with the individual we love. Priya, the chief character in this novel is a Telugu miss who comes from the highest caste which is from a Brahmin household. So, it is a must for h er to get married a Telugu Brahmin. The struggle begins when Priya is in love and is already engaged with a black American, Nick. When she tells her parents and her grandparents about this issue they wholly disagree and would ne’er desire an American cat to be Priya ‘s hubby. Here, she has a struggle with the household where none of them are to back up her except Nate and Sowmya. When, Priya decided to get married Nick, no affair what happens, Thatha replied that if you marry this adult male, so you are non my household. This shows how rigorous older coevalss are in prohibiting a love matrimony. In my sentiment, I would instead hold an arranged matrimony. The chief ground is because, parents know what is the best for their kids and have the wisdom and wherewithal to choose the best campaigner, the matrimony will profit from the support and encouragement of their seniors and hence will be lasting and lasting. There are significantly fewer divorces or separations between people of ordered matrimonies. Based on Noreen, who wrote in Indiamarks web site, he stated that Indians look at get marrieding a individual they do n’t cognize, gives one â€Å" a life-time to larn to love them † . He besides included that an Indian adult female described it as â€Å" Here, we get married without holding feelings for the individual. We base our matrimony on committedness, non on feelings. As our matrimony progresses, the feelings develop. And yes! I genuinely agree with it. At the same clip I would wish to emphasize that, when people think of ordered matrimonies, they frequentl y picture a male child or miss forced into a relationship in which they have perfectly no pick. However, in world, this is merely non the instance ; before the matrimony becomes official the bride and groom have the chance to run into each other. It ‘s non like the twosome see each other on the nuptials twenty-four hours for the first clip or merely one time before the nuptials. There is normally a period of months after the twosome is engaged, where the twosome gets to cognize each other, run into, talk and discourse the hereafter. This clip after the battle to the nuptials twenty-four hours is kind of the dating period for the twosome. The 2nd issue I would wish to foreground from this novel is the version of western civilization. In the context of Priya we can clearly see tonss of alterations in her in footings of life style and how she perceives things in her mundane life when she is back in India after 7 old ages populating in The United States. At the same clip, we can see that she has a different mentality now as she is much liberalized and modernized. She thinks traveling through Pelli- chupulu is merely a waste of clip. This is really common in most of the people. Change is lasting, and you can non state no to alter. When we are in the land of the westerners, earlier or later we will certainly acquire adapt to the life style at that place. For illustration, populating together before matrimony is wholly prohibited in India but non in the western civilization. Here, we can see that Priya ‘s life style had changed when she went to The States. She lived together with Nick in the same roof even though they are non married yet and on top of that she had besides made love with Nick. Besides that, the westerners call people by their names even though the individual is much older than them. In this novel we can see that Priya calls Nick ‘s Dendranthema grandifloruom by her name, Frances, even though she is much older than Priya. So, based all this facts from the narrative I can infer that we will acquire adapted to the civilization where we are, like how the phrase goes, when in Rome do as the Romans do. Priya was in The States for 7 old ages. This is a long phase for her to truly acquire to cognize all the civilizations of the westerners and thereby acquire assimilated with the civilization at that place. In one of the article by The Associated Press stated that when you are in America being Indian and being here, you shy off from it or conceal from it because you want to be like everyone else. It is really difficult to keep our ain civilization and belief when all around us are Americans. That ‘s what Priya went through, Indians in America were non every bit many as in India and she found it really hard to pattern her ain civilization and traditions at that place. Priya told that when she foremost saw Nick she ne’er expected to prosecute a relationship with him, subsequently on dating him and worst of all life together and started doing love. Here we can deduce that Priya ne’er wanted to confront all this in America but she did, and why? The chief thing is because she got adapted to the civilization at that place. My 3rd issue in on inter-caste matrimonies. Inter-caste matrimony means girl and male childs are from different castes where one member belongs to take down caste. In this novel, inter-caste matrimony can be seen in the matrimony of Anand and Neelima. Anand is a Telugu Brahmin while Neelima is a Maharashtrian Brahmin. Even though we can see that both are Brahmans but they are from different caste. Neelima is a Maharashtrian which is a lower caste from Telugu. Priya one time stated that being Telugu was really indispensable. Telugu was the official linguistic communication of Andhra Pradesh. Being of the same caste was non plenty to consecrate a matrimony. To get married person, that person had to besides be from the same province. So, Maharashtrians are from the lower caste because they are non Telugu. At the same clip, we can see that thatha was besides is a love matrimony, he was really arranged to Ammamma ‘s cousin, Ratna. But after thatha saw Ammamma, he wanted to get marri ed ammamma alternatively of Ratna. So here we can see that thatha himself pattern love matrimony but with the lone different that he married in the same caste. Their matrimony was successful because they are from the same caste. If ammamma was from a different caste, so certain thatha was forbidden from get marrieding ammamma. Inter-caste matrimonies have the pro and con ‘s based on which century our position is. As written in Brahmans Within the Caste System byA Andrea Pintane, he stated that Inter-caste matrimonies was really critical in those yearss because different caste pattern different civilization. For case, Harmonizing to the ancientA Hindu scriptures, there are four different caste. TheA Bhagavad Gita ( Hindu sacred book ) A says caste is decided based onA Karma. The four caste ‘s are the BrahminsA ( instructors, bookmans and priests ) , theA KshatriyasA ( male monarchs and warriors ) , theA VaishyasA ( agriculturalists and bargainers ) , andA ShudrasA ( craftsmans, service suppliers, labourers ) .Brahmins which is the highest caste are forbidden from devouring onions, Allium sativum, tomato and should be vegetarians while the other caste such as the Kshtriyas and Vaishyas are non-vege. So, if they marry a individual from different caste, so they have to confront jobs based on the nu trient they consume. Besides that, the 4 caste are from different businesss. Parents those yearss find it easier to be in the same businesss so that they wo n’t hold any jobs in their jobs. But now it ‘s different. With more globalisation and addition in educational installations, there is great alteration in the positions of people. As modernisation has affected every subdivision of society, inter-caste matrimonies have besides received credence from the people in urban and modern societies. There has been broad alteration in the societal scenario. Parents and relations of the lovers have been coming up with more unfastened heads with broad credence of matrimonies outside their ain castes. So, based on this narrative, we can deduce that Priya comes from a household who still have the older coevalss mindset on the inter caste matrimonies. As a decision, I would wish to state that America and India are manner apart. America is a developed state while India is still a underdeveloped state. It ‘s really difficult to compare a state which has so different in every individual thing. India faced so much agony during those times that they find it so hard to come up. Personally, I enjoyed reading this book. This had given me a opportunity to research the unknown and at the same clip increasing my cognition on my ain civilizations. How to cite Studying The Journey Of Mango Season English Literature Essay, Essay examples

International Labour Mobility and its Effects †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the International Labour Mobility and its Effects. Answer: Introduction International Labour Mobility is an important feature in our global economy. Many international companies heavily depend on the workforce acquired both legally and illegally. For example, many industries in the United States of America acquire their cheap labor mostly from Mexico and the Caribbean (Barajas, Chami, Fullenkamp, Gapen, Montiel, 2009). The economies of the middle East countries have been instigated by the laborers from the South Asian countries. An estimation by the UN puts it that nearly 3% of every country population migrate to other countries due to several reasons that will be discussed in this research paper. It is believed that international mobility is influenced by political affairs. For example considering the legal and illegal migration of people across borders due to instability in their own countries. An example of this was noticed in the 1990s when there was a lot of movement of people from France Italy ( Abella, 2004). The anti-immigrant political parties such as the National Front in France and the National Alliance in Italy opposed these movements. The same view is supported by the academics in their theories that this kind of movement has serious effects on the economies, people, and families. For instance, the traditional international theory holds that lowering barriers to mobility of labor consequently opens the way to the specialization of wages across the countries. Studies have indicated that rural populations in Canada are prone to the aspect of movement to urban centers, but very little comes to light about the effects of these movements both in the economic affairs of the country and the families of the migrants. However, in developing countries, the movements might bear some fruits to the country and the families that are left behind. What comes in the limelight is that many people migrate to other countries to look for a better lifestyle, education, health. It is believed that international countries may have opportunities that are not present in your home country. Effects of International mobility International mobility is a basis for some argues that those who are abroad will act as the bread winners to most families. For example, researchers have indicated that money migrants in most cases bring back home finances that are used to finance the education of children and sustain a number of projects and well-being of their families. However, immigration can lower the human capital stock, for instance, the brain drain aspect. This can negatively affect the productivity of a country because many of her people that could be in the workforce have migrated to other countries. The inadequacy of health professionals can cause a serious setback and disruption in the provision of health services both in rural and urban areas (Beine, Docquier, Rapaport, 2001). Some researchers have put it that foreign workers including the legal ones, help develop the economic status of a country by insulating domestic populations. This means that many guest workers may be required especially in developing countries to help them revive their economies. However, in developed countries, cheaper foreign labor may be needed if the local labor turns too expensive to afford. International mobility can cause the spill-over effects, whereby those that have migrated leave vulnerable and dependent people in their families back at home. If the migrants are the breadwinners back at home, then the effect would be much felt and this may result to more agony from such families (Battistella Gastardo-Conaco, 2013). This paper also looks at how the international communities have served as viable sources of information, links, and networking with business people and their businesses. These networks and links have given room for the transfer of technological skills from one country to another thereby improving the economies of the developing countries. One thing that is mostly achieved through mobility is the increased urbanization. In India, for the first few decades, the movement of Indians who are registered has been observed as an important aspect of migration pattern of Indians. It began as the internal migration whereby registered Indians move from their rural homes to cities. Various reasons have been given for this movement. For instance, in 1996, a survey identified that education was the major cause of this kind of movement. Many people moved from their homes to cities and even abroad in search of an education in general. The study also puts family and housing issues in the lead in causing such migrations. In Britain, the mid-1800s saw many from the rural setups move to urban and abroad in search of jobs, healthcare, and education as well (Acosta, Caldern, Fajnzylber, Lpez, 2008). In the recent world, there is a perception that mobility is on the rise everywhere in the world. There has been a massive movement of people in China that has brought a dramatic industrialization, such as that seen in the agricultural sector. In 1980, there was a massive movement of people to North America, followed by other movements of 1990 to Western Europe. As part of the population, the youths are considered the most mobile group. Many of them are migrating to cities and abroad in search of jobs, education, better lifestyle etc. In Canada, two-thirds of the locals have moved to urban centers as many of them moving towards that direction expected. The exposure of the indigenous people to urban life is seen as a positive move that would be able to enlighten them. In other words, the movement to other areas will result in positive impact on their lives and the economic status of the countries involved (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada [AAND], 2010). This research realizes that international migration leads to positive impacts for the migrants and the countries involved as well, despite knowing very well that there are cases of exploitation and discrimination involved. Most research that has been done show that most people who migrate from their countries do it to benefit them and their families. The departure of an individual brings down the labor and result to a decline in farm output but this is balanced by the positive effects of the movements. A recent study in Bolivia indicates that workers even those with inadequate education or schooling, who migrate to other cities, experience more in terms of their income than those staying at their rural homes. International movements of people can be based on the issue of searching for better health care and other health benefits that may come alongside health services. People usually move because in their own countries there are no or inadequate services offered. For example, an individual may migrate from his or her country to seek medication in other countries abroad, as a result, it may be a beneficial to him or his family in the long run (Beine, Docquier, Rapaport, 2001). The movement of workers is also based on the fact that they need a place where they are more productive. This means in their own countries, there is little they can do to showcase their talents like they can do when they are in other countries. When people migrate abroad, they are able to develop their skills even more in order to achieve the best results. In this situation, that particular country will be productive because there are new talents and skills in place. Therefore, there is a talent gain when internatio nal mobility is practiced (Amuedo-Dorantes, Pozo, 2004). International mobility also results in increased consumption in terms of goods and services. The receiving country would be able to dispose their services to foreigners. This means that there would be an expanded market because the migrants can also send back goods to their original countries. It is also a benefit in terms of creating business networking among the countries. Countries which are involved in global businesses are known to creating networks with other countries (Basher Fachin, 2011). These networks are successful if there are people to undertake logistical issues. Migrants can act like passive sales agents that would advertise the services and goods on both sides. Apart from the creation of business networks, new ideas, and business models are more prevalent outcomes with international mobility. Different people come up with new ways of doing businesses because of enriched manpower and skills. If a country allows immigrants from other countries, it means that it has very close ties with that country and she would be willing to support that country. Many countries dispose of their people because of a number of factors. For example, political stability is the main cause of human movement from unstable countries. This means that the unstable country will benefit from the support given by the developed country. More specifically, the developed country can support the unstable country by lending and work very closely with the government to improve the lives of its people. A recent research shows that there is a very close relationship between people migrating to other countries and transfer of technology and creation of knowledge networks (Adams, 2002). With the advances in technology, developed countries can transfer their technological skills to developing nations. This is only possible when people move from one nation to another. These networks and links have given room for the transfer of technological skills from one country to another thereby improving the economies of the developing countries. One thing that is mostly achieved through mobility is the increased urbanization. In India, for the first few decades, the movement of Indians who are registered has been observed as an important aspect of migration pattern of Indians. It began as the internal migration whereby registered Indians move from their rural homes to cities. Various reasons have been given for this movement. For instance, in 1996, a survey identified that education was the major cause of this kind of movement (Aslund Rooth, 2007). Some people argue that those who are abroad will act as the bread- winners to most families. For example, research has indicated that people, who migrate because of money cases, bring back home finances that are used to finance the education of children and sustain a number of projects and well-being of their families. However, immigration can lower the human capital stock, for instance, the brain drain aspect. This can negatively affect the productivity of a country because many of her people that could be in the workforce have migrated to other countries. The inadequacy of health professionals can cause a serious setback and disruption in the provision of health services both in rural and urban areas. Conclusion International mobility has positive impacts as well as the negative effects on the economies of the concerned countries. The research presented here has indicated that it may result in a brain drain and to an extent that the young countries may lack skilled and professional workforce. It is, therefore, important that relevant policies are put in place to ensure that this is minimized at all cost. It is a hub for discrimination and intimidation and if not regulated can violate the human rights (Bernard, Finnie, St. Jean, 2008). International Labour Mobility is an important feature in our global economy. Many international companies heavily depend on the workforce acquired both legally and illegally. The importance of international mobility seems to overweigh the negative impacts it has on the people and the countries involved (Aydemir Sweetman, 2007). Therefore, it is necessary to address every issue concerning immigration of people from one country to another. The exposure of the indigenous people to urban life is seen as a positive move that would be able to enlighten them. In other words, the movement to other areas will result in positive impact on their lives and the economic status of the countries involved. The improvement of the economy of the gaining country is fundamental to the phase of any development in the world. These benefits may be highly derived when good policies are put in place to check on the movements of people and to regulate the rules that may be imposed on the migrants on those migrants. References Abella, M. (2004). The role of recruiters in labor migration. In D. Massey J. Edward Taylor (Eds.), International migration: Prospects and policies in a global market (pp. 201 - 211). London: Oxford University Press. Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada [AANDC]. (2010). 2011 2012 report on plans and priorities: Demographic description. Retrieved from https://www.aadncaandc.gc.ca/eng/1315424049095/131542415504 Acosta, P., Caldern, C., Fajnzylber, P., Lpez, J. H. (2008). Do remittances lower poverty levels in Latin America? Adams, R. H. Jr. (2002). Precautionary saving from different sources of income: Evidence from rural Pakistan (Policy Research Working Paper Report No. 2761). Washington, DC: World Bank. Amuedo-Dorantes, C., Pozo, S. (2004). Workers' remittances and the real exchange rate: A paradox of gifts. World Development, 32(8), 1407 1417 Aslund, O., Rooth, D. O. (2007). Do when and where matter? Initial labor market conditions and immigrant earnings. Economic Journal, 117(518), 422 - 448. Aydemir, A., Sweetman, A. (2007). First- and second-generation immigrant educational attainment and labor market outcomes: A comparison of the United States and Canada. Research in Labor Economics, 27, 215 270. Barajas, A., Chami, R., Fullenkamp, C., Gapen, M., Montiel, P. (2009). Do workers remittances promote economic growth (International Monetary Fund, WorkingPaper,09/153)?Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2009/wp09153.pdf Basher, S. A., Fachin, S. (2011). The long-term decline of internal migration in Canada - Ontario as a case study (MPRA Paper No. 6685). Retrieved from https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de./6685/ Battistella, G., Bastardo-Conaco. M. (2013). The impact of labor migration on the children left behind. Sojourn, 13(2), 220 - 241. Beine, M., Docquier, F., Rapaport, H. (2001). Brain drain and economic growth: Theory and evidence. Journal of Development Economics, 64(1), 275 289. Bell, M., Muhidin, S. (2009). Cross-national comparisons of internal migration (HDR Paper no. 30). New York: UNDP. Bernard, A., Finnie, R., St. Jean, B. (2008). Inter-provincial mobility and earnings. Perspectives, 9(10). Retrieved from https://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/75-001- x/2008110/article/10711-eng.htm

How important was the Allied use of new technology Essays

How important was the Allied use of new technology in the victory over Germany by 1918? The Great War between the Allied powers of France, Britain and the USA and the Alliance powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey was the first truly modern war. Horrendous losses occurred on both sides and because of this it came to be known as "the war to end all wars". The war broke out in 1914 due to a number of factors including the rise of militarism, imperialism, the systems of alliance in place in Europe and Slav nationalism. The use of new technology was important in the Allied victory over Germany by 1918. However, there were other factors which were important in the eventual success of the Allies. The entrance of the USA in 1917 added the New Worlds might in arms and men to the war of attrition on the western front. Finally, the collapse of the German Home Front due to the pressures of war and the Allied Naval Blockade proved to be a significant factor in the Allied victory. However it was the American entry into the war in 1917 that made the Allied victory inevit able with the wealth of money, men and munitions that they brought to the fight against Germany. The Allied use of new technology was fairly important in the victory over Germany. The concentrated use of tanks in the final offensives of 1918 helped the Allied forces to make advances beyond the Hindenburg line and forced the Germans to retreat away from their prepared defensive lines. Therefore, this was fairly important in the Allied final victory because it showed the German High command that they had lost their ability to maintain their positions thus making it clear that defeat was inevitable and forcing them to look for a way to end the war without total annihilation of their forces. Allied air superiority by the end of the war allowed them to track the movement of German reserves and locate weaknesses in the German lines of defence. This, therefore, gave the Allies a definite battlefield advantage that they could exploit to the full and this led to the defeat and capture of thousands of German soldiers near the end of the war contributing to the Allied victory. However , although the use of new technology by the Allies did lead to some exceptional victories its impact was lessened by battlefield conditions and the reliability of some of the technology. Some historians believe that the use of tanks hindered the allied victory as some advances in 1918 which were faced with little German opposition had to be stopped to allow supplies of petrol to catch up and thus allowing the Germans to regroup. American entry into the war was the most important factor in the victory over Germany. The Americans mobilised nearly 2 million men and by the summer of 1918 the Americans became integral to the manpower of the exhausted Allies. This was vitally important as the German forces on the Western Front had been strengthened by upwards of a million men as Russia pulled out of the war giving them the ability to launch a huge offensive in the spring of 1918. The American entry into the war also brought the full might of America's industry into what was an industrial war. Munitions and loans allowed gave the allies the advantage in what was a war of attrition. This was important in the victory over Germany as the allies had huge resources to wage industrial warfare against a Germany that was struggling with the lack of raw material. However, America was providing huge loans and shipments of munitions to Britain and France even before their actually entry as a combatant. Some historians be lieve that the American entry was merely a catalyst and Allied victory was assured after the failure of the German spring offensive. Therefore the use of new technology was fairly important in the Allied victory as it allowed the Allies to break the deadlock in places but at times its reliability hampered the advance. The Allied Blockade of Germany was a more important reason as this led to the collapse of morale in Germany and the

Using the Spanish Preposition Entre

Using the Spanish Preposition Entre The Spanish preposition entre usually means between or among, and it is used more broadly than its English counterparts. Entre can be used as an adverbial phrase meaning, among themselves, or in figurative, idiomatic expressions. Also, entre differs from most Spanish prepositions in that it is typically complemented by the subject pronouns yo and tà º rather than the usual object pronouns. The correct way to say between you and me, is to say entre tà º y yo instead of  entre ti y mà ­Ã‚  as might usually be the case with other Spanish prepositions. Do not confuse the conjugated verb entre, derived from entrar, which is the word meaning to enter, with the preposition entre, they are not the same. Using Entre to Mean Between or Among Entre can be used as an exact equivalent of the English words between or among. Or, in some cases, entre is not a direct literal translation to the English words between or among, but can have a similar meaning that can be understood. Spanish Sentence English Translation Muy pronto los robots estarn entre nosotros. Very soon, the robots will be among us. Un total de seis pasajeros entre ellos mujeres y nià ±os ya salieron. A total of six passengers, among them women and children, already left. No hay buenas relaciones entre la escuela y la comunidad. There are not good relations between the school and the community. Estamos entre los europeos menos xenà ³fobos. We are among the less xenophobic Europeans. Entre las clases difà ­ciles y la falta de sueà ±o, no puedo hacer ejercicio. Between the difficult classes and the lack of sleep, I can't exercise. Entre la muchedumbre se encontraba un terrorista. A terrorist was found in the crowd. Se pierden entre la nieve. They got lost in the snow. Entre la lluvia, vio las ventanas cerradas. She saw the windows closed in the rain. Using Entre Sà ­ as a Phrase Meaning Among Themselves   Entre sà ­ can be used as an adverbial phrase to mean among themselves, mutually, or with each other. Spanish Sentence English Translation Los periodistas compiten entre sà ­. The journalists compete among each other. Ellos se aman entre sà ­ como una madre y un hijo. They love each other like mother and son. Cuando la obsidiana se rompe y sus fragmentos se golpean entre sà ­, su sonido es muy peculiar. When obsidian breaks and its fragments hit each other, its sound is very unusual. Idiomatic Expressions Using Entre Spanish idioms  are figurative words or expressions that cannot be completely understood solely from the words used. Attempting to translate a Spanish idiom word-for-word will result in confusion. Entre has several idioms that might be best understood if remembered or memorized. Spanish Phrase or Sentence English Translation estar entre la vida y la muerte to be fighting for one's life Entre tanto, las dimensiones econà ³micas han comenzado a tomar forma. Meanwhile, the economic dimension have begun to take shape. Entre semana, el servicio de autobuses empieza a las 05:45. Weekdays [during the week], bus service begins at 5:45 a.m.

Do HR policies enhance employee productivity and hence should be used Essay

Do HR policies enhance employee productivity and hence should be used as a business strategy to achieve a cost advantages - Essay Example agers [2 from large manufacturing organization, 1 from small-medium size telecom organization, 1 each from small size finance and small size service organizations], revealed that the HR managers were involved with routine functions like administration, documentation, training and development and conflict management. Further, the strategic roles and its attributes were presented as the ability to foresee future and assess the changing business needs and environments and to plan for them. The main survey includes questions developed on the basis of the findings of the preliminary survey and the literature review. The main research included administering a questionnaire to fifty HR managers [20 from manufacturing with 15 large organizations and 5 Small-Medium; 10 from large telecom organization; 10 each from small finance and service organizations] from 15 organizations. - The larger firms have HR managers who are more involved in the organizational process and in addition to the administrative duties also provide guidance in policy development and assessing the future HR needs. - There is also a difference in the role of the HR managers across different sectors. Manufacturing organizations give more autonomy, and their HR managers are more involved in decision-making, and provide more strategy related support. Training and development activities take up a major part of all HR managers’ time. General Management is the management of the organizational resources and processes in a manner that positive gins could be attained out of the enterprise. General Management therefore comprises of activities like planning, organizing, motivating, controlling, leading and conflict managing. With the onset of the industrialization, the realm of General Management expanded to include activities like process managements and technology management (Kroon 2005). Further, propelled by the various researchers and academics, the management thought evolved to make the human resources

Tear the Curtain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Tear the Curtain - Essay Example Alex is a Vancouver theater critic and is very passionate about his work. He firmly believes he found the legendary theater director Stanley Lee who directed the famous (or infamous) ‘The Empty Space’. Alex is strong in his conviction that Stanley Lee is the person who can destroy audience complacency, as he is not satisfied with the way the theater business is progressing. But what Alex is trying to do is not easy. He strives to prove something through Stanley Lee but himself gets caught up between two mob families and the Empty Space Society. The breakdown of Alex has a buildup revolving around Stanley Theatre. The two rival gangs are trying to take control of this theater and Alex gets caught up in the crossfire (Kaplan, 2012). Anagnorisis occurs in the play when Alex creates confusion among the audience about reality and truth. For a moment the audience gets puzzled if they are watching a play or is it happening in real life, or probably they too are the part of a play. This strange sense of existence or the question of existence seeds catharsis in the audience. Although the plot of the play doesn’t revolve around Rene Decarte’s philosophy of existence yet there are aspects in the play that leave a deep impact on the audience, the make them question their own existence. This conflict leads them to a catharsis, where they ask quick question to their own ‘self’ to confirm if they really exist in the audience or are they on s stage. But this form of questioning is overshadowed by the strong premise that they bought the tickets to the play and that can’t be a part of the play. They have their lives back at home, their own sense of existence. How can that be true that Alex is reading the script and the script itself reads he is reading it? It is there and then the audiences get wrinkles on their foreheads, some start scratching their chins, while some would look away from the stage to

Effect of Domestic Violence on Children and Young People

Effect of Domestic Violence on Children and Young People The Nature of Domestic Violence Domestic violence has been defined as: a continuum of behaviour ranging from verbal abuse, physical, and sexual assault, to rape and even homicide. The vast majority of such violence, and the most severe and chronic incidents, are perpetrated by men against women and their children. (Department of Health [DoH] 2000) In most cases the violence is against women by their partners or spouse and affects children belonging to one or both of them. Children can become victims of domestic violence either through being directly targeted or witnessing scenes of domestic violence between parents and their partners. At least 750,000 children a year witness violence within the home, and nearly three quarters of children on child protection registers live in households where domestic violence occurs. (Dept. of Health, 2003). Abuse and violence may be physical, emotional, psychological, financial or sexual, and may be constant or spasmodic. Yet domestic violence is experienced by individuals from every class, race, religion and culture the world over (British Medical Association [BMA] 1999). While severe cases of domestic violence can often lead to women being hospitalised, others remain undetectable to the public eye, leaving women who live in constant fear of their partner or spouse, trying to avoid degradation. A study by Mayhew found that psychological and emotional abuse might be constant whilst the physical violence is intermittent (Mayhew et al 1996). For the child or young person this becomes a way of life one without stability or security and this can lead to behavioural problems and even crime. The focus of this dissertation is on the impact of domestic violence on the lives of children and young people. Research took place in the Hammersmith and Fulham area of London. The main body of research is secondary, from journals, books, and internet sources. The primary research is in the form of 2 sets of questionnaires handed out to 40people. The first questionnaire uses a design based on a survey done by Doctors from the University of Arizona, which has already proven tube successful and reliable. The questionnaire consists of four questions: Have you ever been in a relationship with someone who has hit you, kicked you, slapped you, punched you, or threatened to hurt you? CURRENTLY? When you were pregnant did anyone ever physically hurt you? Are you in a relationship with someone who yells at you, calls you names, or puts you down? (Wahl et al 2004: 25). The questionnaire was carried out on a random sample of the public. 20were handed to people outside Fulham Broadway tube station during rush-hour. People were only given the form if they said they had children, and were asked to fill it in on their way home from work or when they got back, and were given an sae. This method was chosen for reasons of personal safety as opposed to going round door to door. If the respondent answered yes to all questions then they were said to have suffered a prolonged period of domestic violence. In order to investigate the effects of domestic violence on adolescents questionnaire was devised for teenagers (see Appendix 1) and 20 were handed out at a youth centre in Hammersmith to be filled out anonymously. The forms were then collected at the end of the day. The second section of primary research was designed to be more specific. It was decided to approach an association specifically setup for women who have suffered domestic violence, which is actively involved in policy work in the UK. The chairwoman was approached and asked whether she could arrange for a sample preferably those with family in a black community who would consider completing questionnaire for a research study on domestic violence and its effects on young people and children. The chairwoman gave the researcher four names and email addresses of people who were willing to be contacted. However, the respondents and the association were to remain anonymous for reasons of confidentiality and security. The respondents used pseudonyms for their responses. As the sample was small, yet relevant, it was decided to use a more lengthy questionnaire, and interview the four subjects in more depth about their experience. Aside from the emotional effects, questions were designed to explore how domestic violence can be detrimental to learning and health. (see Appendix 2). Organisations and Government Policy There are many voluntary organisations such as Shelter, which provide counselling and places of refuge for women and children suffering domestic violence. Beneath are listed other services in the Hammersmith and Fulham area: Refuge provides a Freephone 24-hour National Domestic Violence Helpline Community efforts, such as the ‘Peace Week.’ The protection from Harassment Act 1997 Prosecutions from the Criminal Justice Act 1998 where the victim need not appear in court, but her statement used instead. Developing police strategy for collecting evidence at the scene (Home Office 2000). What happens to children in cases of Domestic Violence? The aftermath of domestic problems can be as damaging as the incidents or episodes themselves. Children can be present during an arrest of apparent, witness a parent breaking restraining orders and their reactions to court decisions. In these situations children can be used as pawns or in worst cases even be taken as hostages. (Devote and Smith, 2002 ). In a qualitative study on the effects of domestic violence on children, McGees (2000) study, along with other research, revealed that: Children do not have to experience physical abuse to experience long-term negative effects of living where extreme controlling behaviour and abuse are the norm. In order to protect themselves, children may take the father’s side in an argument, and may themselves be abusive to their mother (Kelly 1996). Children regularly experience a sense of total powerlessness, wishing they could assist their mother, which may produce harm to their long-term emotional wellbeing. This may later cause revenge fantasies, but at the time often leads them to have an overpowering need to stay in the room. (Shipway 2004: 116). It is not unusual for the child or young person to blame themselves for what is happening to their mother, particularly as the partner may have used their behaviour as a reason for losing his temper. (Ibid). Young people sometimes fear social services will remove them from the home if it is known violence and abuse exists. Gaudi (2001:27) provided evidence confirming that two-thirds of the residents in refuges are children. However, this does not account for the hundreds who are afraid to report violence. The threat of leaving their family home, however unstable, is often not well received by children, and many would rather put up with domestic violence than remove themselves from it. Domestic Violence in the Black community Domestic violence in the black community has been recognised as being less likely to be reported mainly because women and young people do not wish to threaten the stability of their position within their community. Women from African Caribbean communities are less likely to report their experiences and therefore they experience prolonged abuse over a long, or sometimes indeterminate, time frame. One of the critical debates concerning domestic violence is the idea of ‘getting used’ to a way of being treated and thus for it to become the norm within family life. An article written by a survivor of domestic violence said of her early years in Jamaica: ‘in my experience it was commonplace to hear of or even witness women/men being beaten by their spouses or partners in public view.’ (Unknown author.http://www.2as1.net/articles/article.asp?id=49.). She comments of violence in the UK, saying that ‘particularly within the Black community, the fighting may not overspill onto the streets but it does occur, behind closed doors.’ Black communities in London are well established and people living within them rely on the social structure of their area. The idea of leaving the area to live in a refuge where they might not understand English speaking people so well is an intimidating prospect for many. Thus, some women who do not speak English might delay seeking help, finding the language a barrier between them and British speaking organisations. Interpreters can be used, but involving a third partying a woman’s private life can be an off-putting idea. Furthermore, religious or cultural beliefs might forbid divorce, and religious community leaders mostly being men, only some speak out about domestic violence. In the case of migrant women and children who suffer domestic abuse there often is the threat of not being able to stay in the UK if they separate from their partner. An even greater threat is that the partner might abduct the children and take them abroad. (GreenwichMulti-Agency Domestic Violence Forum. 2003). One of the most powerful psychological effects of domestic violence, physical or verbal, is the victim’s distorted perspective of their abuser. Often women will make excuses for the person who attacks them blaming it on themselves or on drink or drugs or other stresses within their relationship. This comes with an inability to prioritise their personal safety and wellbeing, and that of their children, believing that the emotional attachment between the family members might be enough to overcome the presence of violence. Consequently, the effects of the mother’s decision to remain within the abusive relationship means that the child remains continually at risk from psychological and physical hurt. The effects of exposure to violence in the home are extensive and not always immediately evident. For the individual exposure to domestic violence can precipitate personality disorders, addictive disorders, substance abuse, and even physical disorders. And as studies have shown, many violent individuals have themselves been victims of domestic violence and abuse, unable to break out of the cycle. Children and adolescents with violent parent(s) are without the presence of a mentor on which to model their behaviour. This can lead to further social problems such as an inability to integrate with peers. A young person who has experienced the insecurity of a violent home life might seek security in other forms such as substance abuse, and gangs and gang violence. Statistics The Home Office survey 2004 reported on a questionnaire used by the2001 British Crime Survey. It asked a nationally representative sample of 22,463 women and men aged between 16 and 59 whether they had been subject to domestic violence during their lifetime and during the preceding year. For relevance to this dissertation the following graphs were selected from the survey: Source: Home Office Survey 2004: 12. The survey surmised that since the age of 16 45% of women and 26%of men were subject to domestic violence at least once in their lifetime. (Home Office 2004: 8). Of these 18.6% were subject to force, meaning pushing, shoving, or physical harm. The British Crime Survey estimated that 13% of women and 9% of men had been subject to domestic violence in the 12 months prior to interview. (p.8). Furthermore, 12.9 million incidents of domestic violence acts had occurred against women in that year. Violence against children In 90% of cases of domestic violence children are in the same room or the next room.(Hughes 1998) In 40% 60% of cases of domestic violence child abuse is also occurring ( Stark Flit craft 1998) The NCH study found 75% of mothers said their children had witnessed domestic violence, 33% had seen their mothers beaten up, 10%had witnessed sexual violence (NCH, 1994). (http://www.womens-aid.org.uk/statistics.php). Immediate effects of Domestic Violence on Children and Young People A report by the Department of Health concluded that: For many women and their families the effects of domestic violence will be catastrophic, the damage to their physical and psychological wellbeing may be deeply damaging, and on occasions fatal. (Department of Health [DoH] 2000: 12) Victimisation by a parent of a child or young person can lead to the individual becoming so controlled and inhibited that they are unable to make even the simplest decision or act without permission, responding with complete obedience to every order given and every rule imposed. Abuse can encumber every part of their life, leading in cases to suicide seeming like the only escape. Some people express their self-disgust and powerlessness through alcohol or drug abuse, or self-mutilation, exhibiting signs of severe depression and complete dependency on the abuser.(Shipway 2004: 1). Because of the variety of forms which domestic violence can take its difficult for research to cover all areas. For example, there can be negative effects from being an observer. Research by Fantuzzo and Mohr noted this and thus instead of using the term ‘victim’ used ‘exposure.’ This was used in the context of the experience of watching or hearing domestic violence; being directly involved; calling police; and the experience of the aftermath of scenes which might include seeing injuries or bruising on a parent and observing maternal depression. (Fantuzzo and Mohr 1999: 22). Work by Hester et al found that childrens responses differ among members of the same family who are witnessing or experiencing the same abuse. They also said that it is hard to discern the impacts of living with domestic violence on children, because some of the consequent behaviours also occur in children experiencing other forms of abuse and neglect. (Hester et al. 2000:44) The following is a list of negative effects taken from Shipway 2004: 117): Secrecy Confusion Fear Mistrustful Blaming themselves Nightmares In addition Hester et al. (2000:44) found that whilst some children have poor social skills others attain a high level of social skills development with an ability to negotiate difficult situations. Child’s ability to cope with abuse should never be underestimated; neither should the childs attachment to the abusive parent which, for some, may continue to be strong. (Ibid). Children’s responses to witnessing domestic violence will depend on age, race, class, sex, stage of development, and the support of others.(Women’s Aid). Children may feel angry at their mother or father for not protecting them, as well as blaming them for causing the violence. Others may be so concerned about their mothers distress that they keep private their own grief (Saunders, 1995. From Women’s Aid). Long Term effects Research by Fantuzzo and Mohr concluded that children who live in violent households are at greater risk of being maladjusted. (Fantuzzoand Mohr 1999: 22.) Some of these problems include: Behaviour Modelling In very young children through to adolescent age, behaviour is often modelled on people who the individual spends significant time with. Piaget in his 1972 publication noted that children’s play behaviour involves modelling on those around them, and eventually to reproducing that behaviour at any given time or place . As children grow up the parent figure becomes a role-model and if an abusive relationship exists then this trust is taken away. In study conducted by American researchers on aggression and violence in adolescent boys, 15 interviewees were asked questions which sought to identify areas for improvement concerning intervention and prevention. Participants disclosed that their aggressive responses to provocation were frequently modelled on responses that they had seen exhibited bothers, particularly those observed among immediate and extended family members. For example, a respondent called Dan said the following about his father: He gets mad too quickly. Hell get aggravated and hell just explode and thats when the fights start. Well argue and then Ill get mad and tell him some stuff and then hell get mad and just start yelling and then like one of us will go after the other, and then were fighting so my mother will try to break it up or call the police. (Ballot et al 2002: 221). Not all interviewees connected their behaviour with their families, however, there were many family interactions which involved aggression and domestic violence. It is perhaps the impact of what children witness that remains with them and encourages them to learn negative behavioural responses more quickly. As Brian explained, When I was younger, I didnt have a very organized family at all, so I looked towards the people on the streets. Thats when it gets you in trouble. Social Integration The abused childs unstable, often dangerous, home environment is likely to limit the childs development of social skills, self-confidence, and experience of positive interactions (Herrenkohl etal., 1995). Taken from Cooper 1999: 10). Children who grow up in a violent, unpredictable family have a `world view in which potential threat is constantly present. The child’s ability to play and integrate with others is severely impaired as they are, if you like, watching their back in case of attack. Play is an important medium of self-expression for the young child, especially during the preschool years when language is still developing. It is the way in which children explore the world around them and learn to recognise and understand objects and people. Because play is sensitive to environmental conditions, the childs physical and social environment will either support or limit his or her play opportunities. Unfortunately, when a child is exposed to a chronically violent, abusive, or neglectful home environment, his or her opportunities for play development and play experiences are severely disrupted. (Cooper 1999:10). The physically abused or neglected child is more likely to show delayed language, cognitive, and motor development, and as a consequence, delayed play skills (Ibid). Cooper suggests that the preschool child will internalise the experience of domestic violence, and may view himself or herself as the cause. As a result, the preschool child may act in destructive ways, such as deliberately destroying other childrens games or toys, in order to attract negative attention. (Ibid). A 1989 study by Fagot et al found physically abused preschool children’s free play with peers to be more disruptive, aggressive, and antisocial than the play of other, non-abused children. (Ibid). Fantuzzo found that aggressive play behaviour, and a lack of empathy with fellow children, is likely to further isolate and prevent the abused child from learning appropriate social skills (Davis Fantuzzo, 1989: 227-248). Structure Children living in a dysfunctional family unit where violence occurs will often experience a lack of structure and organisation to their daily lives. The study by Ballot et al found that the boys ‘felt safe ‘in the institution as they had a chance to lead ‘orderly, less chaotic lives than the ones they experienced in their homes and on the streets.’ (Ballot et al 2002: 17). Every child will cope with exposure to domestic violence in their own unique way. Indeed, many children might at first not appear to have been adversely affected. It is only later, or in certain situations that their inner emotional state might be revealed. Indeed, although there is a varying number of possible negative health and social outcomes for children who have lived in an abusive home, not all children manifest these characteristics in their later life. The young mind can be resilient and adaptable: It is important to remember that some children remain perfectly well-adjusted despite living with abuse and that a majority survive within on clinical or normal levels of functioning. (Millender and Morley1994:4) Results from Primary Research Of the 20 questionnaires handed out to a random sample of respondents, who were asked only to fill out and return the form if they had children. 8 were returned. The results are set out below: 1. Have you ever been in a relationship with someone who has hit you, kicked you, slapped you, punched you, or threatened to hurt you? 2. CURRENTLY? 3. When you were pregnant did anyone ever physically hurt you? 4. Are you in a relationship with someone who yells at you, calls you names, or puts you down? 7 out of 8 women said they had been in a relationship where they were threatened or hurt 3 out of 8 women said they were currently in a violent relationship 6 women who said they had been abused while pregnant, which implies that their children could have been born into a domestically violent household. 6 out of 8 women said they were in an emotionally abusive relationship These statistics for the Fulham area are quite high. Nearly half of respondents said they had experienced prolonged domestic abuse. It would be useful to conduct a further study on another random sample to see if the two sets of results would correlate. Because under half the sample returned the questionnaires it cannot be said to be representative sample of the Fulham area. Nonetheless the findings do give a surprising insight into the lives of black women in London, showing that abuse, in any form, is a regular occurrence in some people’s lives. Furthermore, because these respondents had children it’s likely that their children have witnessed domestic violence. Future research might look into establishing a comparison study on 20 women who do not have children in an attempt to see whether more cases of abuse occur within relationships where children are present. Questionnaire on teenagers Of the 20 forms which were filled in 9 respondents said they had been involved in or witnessed cases of domestic violence in their lifetime. 1. Have you ever been involved in or witnessed scenes of domestic violence in your family? Was this age 1-5/6-14/15-present? Or all of the above? 2. Were these scenes between your parents/partners? Did they ever directly involve you? Yes: 4 No: 5 3. Were you ever physically hurt during these episodes? Yes: 3 No: 6 4. Were you verbally abused during these episodes? Yes: 9 No: 0 5. How did your experience affect your daily life: 1. Made you shy†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..2 2. Made you sad†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 3. Made you angry†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 4. Made you aggressive towards others†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 6. Do you believe your experience to have been detrimental to your ability to enjoy and participate in school? 1. Yes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..3 2. No†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 2 out of 9 respondents said they had witnessed or experienced domestic abuse throughout their lives. Just under half of respondents said that they were directly involved in scenes of domestic violence and all respondents said they were verbally abused. The highest percentage(100%) said they had felt sad, while just under half felt aggressive towards other people. Interviews The four cases of domestic violence all revealed the problem of domestic violence to be one associated with isolation and taking place within the privacy of the home. All respondents admitted that they believed domestic violence to have negatively affected their children. Particularly poignant were the accounts of children becoming withdrawn, another aggressive, and another blaming her mother. All these findings are consistent with the secondary research presented in the first section of this dissertation. The interviews provided a surprisingly good response. Some people might be reluctant to admit to the presence of violence in their domestic life, especially if it involves their children, in fear of admitting that they are (directly, or indirectly) causing their child to be unhappy. However, all four respondents answered openly and honestly about their experiences. Conclusion This dissertation has looked into a cross section of the population in the Hammersmith and Fulham area of London. Teenagers and women who were known to have experienced abuse were asked questions about their experiences and both reported feelings of sadness and aggression. Random sample of women with children also revealed that nearly half of the population had experienced a domestic violence act of some kind in their lives. The findings were consistent with the secondary research, such as the study by Piaget 1972, and Cooper 1999, both of which found that young children had difficulty in play activities and social integration, both at pre-school and primary level. The study by Ballonet al on aggressive teenagers also correlated with the responses from the questionnaires handed out at the youth centre. It is not possible to say that there are more domestic violence cases in black communities or that they are caused by demographic and stress factors. A study by Richardson et al on the prevalence of domestic violence against women looked for a correlation between demographic factors and domestic violence. They concluded that black women were least likely to have ever experienced domestic violence compared to their white female counterparts.(Richardson et al 2002:274). The interview with the British mother found that the violence she had experienced was mostly verbal and did not involve physical force directed at her. Out of the four women she was the only one still tube with her husband with whom she had fought with. This is not consistent with the secondary research presented at the beginning which suggested that more black women stayed with their spouses in fear of what might happen if they left. Future research might explore the marital status of black women in the Hammersmith and Fulham area and the stability of the family unit. Interviews with more than one member of a family might also be useful in order to gain a different perspective on the same incidents. To conclude, domestic violence appears to have a negative impact on children and young people. Initial responses might be guilt, fear, sleeplessness and a desire to protect their mother. In pre-schoolchildren the learning ability and playfulness is often damaged by the experience of domestic violence. In children of all ages research has shown that behaviour is modelled on what they see around them, and this can lead to anti-social behaviour to peers and strangers. Longer-term effects include an inability to trust other people, withdrawing from social situations, depression, and in worse cases aggression on the streets, and drug and alcohol abuse. Effect of Domestic Violence on Children and Young People Effect of Domestic Violence on Children and Young People The Nature of Domestic Violence Domestic violence has been defined as: a continuum of behaviour ranging from verbal abuse, physical, and sexual assault, to rape and even homicide. The vast majority of such violence, and the most severe and chronic incidents, are perpetrated by men against women and their children. (Department of Health [DoH] 2000) In most cases the violence is against women by their partners or spouse and affects children belonging to one or both of them. Children can become victims of domestic violence either through being directly targeted or witnessing scenes of domestic violence between parents and their partners. At least 750,000 children a year witness violence within the home, and nearly three quarters of children on child protection registers live in households where domestic violence occurs. (Dept. of Health, 2003). Abuse and violence may be physical, emotional, psychological, financial or sexual, and may be constant or spasmodic. Yet domestic violence is experienced by individuals from every class, race, religion and culture the world over (British Medical Association [BMA] 1999). While severe cases of domestic violence can often lead to women being hospitalised, others remain undetectable to the public eye, leaving women who live in constant fear of their partner or spouse, trying to avoid degradation. A study by Mayhew found that psychological and emotional abuse might be constant whilst the physical violence is intermittent (Mayhew et al 1996). For the child or young person this becomes a way of life one without stability or security and this can lead to behavioural problems and even crime. The focus of this dissertation is on the impact of domestic violence on the lives of children and young people. Research took place in the Hammersmith and Fulham area of London. The main body of research is secondary, from journals, books, and internet sources. The primary research is in the form of 2 sets of questionnaires handed out to 40people. The first questionnaire uses a design based on a survey done by Doctors from the University of Arizona, which has already proven tube successful and reliable. The questionnaire consists of four questions: Have you ever been in a relationship with someone who has hit you, kicked you, slapped you, punched you, or threatened to hurt you? CURRENTLY? When you were pregnant did anyone ever physically hurt you? Are you in a relationship with someone who yells at you, calls you names, or puts you down? (Wahl et al 2004: 25). The questionnaire was carried out on a random sample of the public. 20were handed to people outside Fulham Broadway tube station during rush-hour. People were only given the form if they said they had children, and were asked to fill it in on their way home from work or when they got back, and were given an sae. This method was chosen for reasons of personal safety as opposed to going round door to door. If the respondent answered yes to all questions then they were said to have suffered a prolonged period of domestic violence. In order to investigate the effects of domestic violence on adolescents questionnaire was devised for teenagers (see Appendix 1) and 20 were handed out at a youth centre in Hammersmith to be filled out anonymously. The forms were then collected at the end of the day. The second section of primary research was designed to be more specific. It was decided to approach an association specifically setup for women who have suffered domestic violence, which is actively involved in policy work in the UK. The chairwoman was approached and asked whether she could arrange for a sample preferably those with family in a black community who would consider completing questionnaire for a research study on domestic violence and its effects on young people and children. The chairwoman gave the researcher four names and email addresses of people who were willing to be contacted. However, the respondents and the association were to remain anonymous for reasons of confidentiality and security. The respondents used pseudonyms for their responses. As the sample was small, yet relevant, it was decided to use a more lengthy questionnaire, and interview the four subjects in more depth about their experience. Aside from the emotional effects, questions were designed to explore how domestic violence can be detrimental to learning and health. (see Appendix 2). Organisations and Government Policy There are many voluntary organisations such as Shelter, which provide counselling and places of refuge for women and children suffering domestic violence. Beneath are listed other services in the Hammersmith and Fulham area: Refuge provides a Freephone 24-hour National Domestic Violence Helpline Community efforts, such as the ‘Peace Week.’ The protection from Harassment Act 1997 Prosecutions from the Criminal Justice Act 1998 where the victim need not appear in court, but her statement used instead. Developing police strategy for collecting evidence at the scene (Home Office 2000). What happens to children in cases of Domestic Violence? The aftermath of domestic problems can be as damaging as the incidents or episodes themselves. Children can be present during an arrest of apparent, witness a parent breaking restraining orders and their reactions to court decisions. In these situations children can be used as pawns or in worst cases even be taken as hostages. (Devote and Smith, 2002 ). In a qualitative study on the effects of domestic violence on children, McGees (2000) study, along with other research, revealed that: Children do not have to experience physical abuse to experience long-term negative effects of living where extreme controlling behaviour and abuse are the norm. In order to protect themselves, children may take the father’s side in an argument, and may themselves be abusive to their mother (Kelly 1996). Children regularly experience a sense of total powerlessness, wishing they could assist their mother, which may produce harm to their long-term emotional wellbeing. This may later cause revenge fantasies, but at the time often leads them to have an overpowering need to stay in the room. (Shipway 2004: 116). It is not unusual for the child or young person to blame themselves for what is happening to their mother, particularly as the partner may have used their behaviour as a reason for losing his temper. (Ibid). Young people sometimes fear social services will remove them from the home if it is known violence and abuse exists. Gaudi (2001:27) provided evidence confirming that two-thirds of the residents in refuges are children. However, this does not account for the hundreds who are afraid to report violence. The threat of leaving their family home, however unstable, is often not well received by children, and many would rather put up with domestic violence than remove themselves from it. Domestic Violence in the Black community Domestic violence in the black community has been recognised as being less likely to be reported mainly because women and young people do not wish to threaten the stability of their position within their community. Women from African Caribbean communities are less likely to report their experiences and therefore they experience prolonged abuse over a long, or sometimes indeterminate, time frame. One of the critical debates concerning domestic violence is the idea of ‘getting used’ to a way of being treated and thus for it to become the norm within family life. An article written by a survivor of domestic violence said of her early years in Jamaica: ‘in my experience it was commonplace to hear of or even witness women/men being beaten by their spouses or partners in public view.’ (Unknown author.http://www.2as1.net/articles/article.asp?id=49.). She comments of violence in the UK, saying that ‘particularly within the Black community, the fighting may not overspill onto the streets but it does occur, behind closed doors.’ Black communities in London are well established and people living within them rely on the social structure of their area. The idea of leaving the area to live in a refuge where they might not understand English speaking people so well is an intimidating prospect for many. Thus, some women who do not speak English might delay seeking help, finding the language a barrier between them and British speaking organisations. Interpreters can be used, but involving a third partying a woman’s private life can be an off-putting idea. Furthermore, religious or cultural beliefs might forbid divorce, and religious community leaders mostly being men, only some speak out about domestic violence. In the case of migrant women and children who suffer domestic abuse there often is the threat of not being able to stay in the UK if they separate from their partner. An even greater threat is that the partner might abduct the children and take them abroad. (GreenwichMulti-Agency Domestic Violence Forum. 2003). One of the most powerful psychological effects of domestic violence, physical or verbal, is the victim’s distorted perspective of their abuser. Often women will make excuses for the person who attacks them blaming it on themselves or on drink or drugs or other stresses within their relationship. This comes with an inability to prioritise their personal safety and wellbeing, and that of their children, believing that the emotional attachment between the family members might be enough to overcome the presence of violence. Consequently, the effects of the mother’s decision to remain within the abusive relationship means that the child remains continually at risk from psychological and physical hurt. The effects of exposure to violence in the home are extensive and not always immediately evident. For the individual exposure to domestic violence can precipitate personality disorders, addictive disorders, substance abuse, and even physical disorders. And as studies have shown, many violent individuals have themselves been victims of domestic violence and abuse, unable to break out of the cycle. Children and adolescents with violent parent(s) are without the presence of a mentor on which to model their behaviour. This can lead to further social problems such as an inability to integrate with peers. A young person who has experienced the insecurity of a violent home life might seek security in other forms such as substance abuse, and gangs and gang violence. Statistics The Home Office survey 2004 reported on a questionnaire used by the2001 British Crime Survey. It asked a nationally representative sample of 22,463 women and men aged between 16 and 59 whether they had been subject to domestic violence during their lifetime and during the preceding year. For relevance to this dissertation the following graphs were selected from the survey: Source: Home Office Survey 2004: 12. The survey surmised that since the age of 16 45% of women and 26%of men were subject to domestic violence at least once in their lifetime. (Home Office 2004: 8). Of these 18.6% were subject to force, meaning pushing, shoving, or physical harm. The British Crime Survey estimated that 13% of women and 9% of men had been subject to domestic violence in the 12 months prior to interview. (p.8). Furthermore, 12.9 million incidents of domestic violence acts had occurred against women in that year. Violence against children In 90% of cases of domestic violence children are in the same room or the next room.(Hughes 1998) In 40% 60% of cases of domestic violence child abuse is also occurring ( Stark Flit craft 1998) The NCH study found 75% of mothers said their children had witnessed domestic violence, 33% had seen their mothers beaten up, 10%had witnessed sexual violence (NCH, 1994). (http://www.womens-aid.org.uk/statistics.php). Immediate effects of Domestic Violence on Children and Young People A report by the Department of Health concluded that: For many women and their families the effects of domestic violence will be catastrophic, the damage to their physical and psychological wellbeing may be deeply damaging, and on occasions fatal. (Department of Health [DoH] 2000: 12) Victimisation by a parent of a child or young person can lead to the individual becoming so controlled and inhibited that they are unable to make even the simplest decision or act without permission, responding with complete obedience to every order given and every rule imposed. Abuse can encumber every part of their life, leading in cases to suicide seeming like the only escape. Some people express their self-disgust and powerlessness through alcohol or drug abuse, or self-mutilation, exhibiting signs of severe depression and complete dependency on the abuser.(Shipway 2004: 1). Because of the variety of forms which domestic violence can take its difficult for research to cover all areas. For example, there can be negative effects from being an observer. Research by Fantuzzo and Mohr noted this and thus instead of using the term ‘victim’ used ‘exposure.’ This was used in the context of the experience of watching or hearing domestic violence; being directly involved; calling police; and the experience of the aftermath of scenes which might include seeing injuries or bruising on a parent and observing maternal depression. (Fantuzzo and Mohr 1999: 22). Work by Hester et al found that childrens responses differ among members of the same family who are witnessing or experiencing the same abuse. They also said that it is hard to discern the impacts of living with domestic violence on children, because some of the consequent behaviours also occur in children experiencing other forms of abuse and neglect. (Hester et al. 2000:44) The following is a list of negative effects taken from Shipway 2004: 117): Secrecy Confusion Fear Mistrustful Blaming themselves Nightmares In addition Hester et al. (2000:44) found that whilst some children have poor social skills others attain a high level of social skills development with an ability to negotiate difficult situations. Child’s ability to cope with abuse should never be underestimated; neither should the childs attachment to the abusive parent which, for some, may continue to be strong. (Ibid). Children’s responses to witnessing domestic violence will depend on age, race, class, sex, stage of development, and the support of others.(Women’s Aid). Children may feel angry at their mother or father for not protecting them, as well as blaming them for causing the violence. Others may be so concerned about their mothers distress that they keep private their own grief (Saunders, 1995. From Women’s Aid). Long Term effects Research by Fantuzzo and Mohr concluded that children who live in violent households are at greater risk of being maladjusted. (Fantuzzoand Mohr 1999: 22.) Some of these problems include: Behaviour Modelling In very young children through to adolescent age, behaviour is often modelled on people who the individual spends significant time with. Piaget in his 1972 publication noted that children’s play behaviour involves modelling on those around them, and eventually to reproducing that behaviour at any given time or place . As children grow up the parent figure becomes a role-model and if an abusive relationship exists then this trust is taken away. In study conducted by American researchers on aggression and violence in adolescent boys, 15 interviewees were asked questions which sought to identify areas for improvement concerning intervention and prevention. Participants disclosed that their aggressive responses to provocation were frequently modelled on responses that they had seen exhibited bothers, particularly those observed among immediate and extended family members. For example, a respondent called Dan said the following about his father: He gets mad too quickly. Hell get aggravated and hell just explode and thats when the fights start. Well argue and then Ill get mad and tell him some stuff and then hell get mad and just start yelling and then like one of us will go after the other, and then were fighting so my mother will try to break it up or call the police. (Ballot et al 2002: 221). Not all interviewees connected their behaviour with their families, however, there were many family interactions which involved aggression and domestic violence. It is perhaps the impact of what children witness that remains with them and encourages them to learn negative behavioural responses more quickly. As Brian explained, When I was younger, I didnt have a very organized family at all, so I looked towards the people on the streets. Thats when it gets you in trouble. Social Integration The abused childs unstable, often dangerous, home environment is likely to limit the childs development of social skills, self-confidence, and experience of positive interactions (Herrenkohl etal., 1995). Taken from Cooper 1999: 10). Children who grow up in a violent, unpredictable family have a `world view in which potential threat is constantly present. The child’s ability to play and integrate with others is severely impaired as they are, if you like, watching their back in case of attack. Play is an important medium of self-expression for the young child, especially during the preschool years when language is still developing. It is the way in which children explore the world around them and learn to recognise and understand objects and people. Because play is sensitive to environmental conditions, the childs physical and social environment will either support or limit his or her play opportunities. Unfortunately, when a child is exposed to a chronically violent, abusive, or neglectful home environment, his or her opportunities for play development and play experiences are severely disrupted. (Cooper 1999:10). The physically abused or neglected child is more likely to show delayed language, cognitive, and motor development, and as a consequence, delayed play skills (Ibid). Cooper suggests that the preschool child will internalise the experience of domestic violence, and may view himself or herself as the cause. As a result, the preschool child may act in destructive ways, such as deliberately destroying other childrens games or toys, in order to attract negative attention. (Ibid). A 1989 study by Fagot et al found physically abused preschool children’s free play with peers to be more disruptive, aggressive, and antisocial than the play of other, non-abused children. (Ibid). Fantuzzo found that aggressive play behaviour, and a lack of empathy with fellow children, is likely to further isolate and prevent the abused child from learning appropriate social skills (Davis Fantuzzo, 1989: 227-248). Structure Children living in a dysfunctional family unit where violence occurs will often experience a lack of structure and organisation to their daily lives. The study by Ballot et al found that the boys ‘felt safe ‘in the institution as they had a chance to lead ‘orderly, less chaotic lives than the ones they experienced in their homes and on the streets.’ (Ballot et al 2002: 17). Every child will cope with exposure to domestic violence in their own unique way. Indeed, many children might at first not appear to have been adversely affected. It is only later, or in certain situations that their inner emotional state might be revealed. Indeed, although there is a varying number of possible negative health and social outcomes for children who have lived in an abusive home, not all children manifest these characteristics in their later life. The young mind can be resilient and adaptable: It is important to remember that some children remain perfectly well-adjusted despite living with abuse and that a majority survive within on clinical or normal levels of functioning. (Millender and Morley1994:4) Results from Primary Research Of the 20 questionnaires handed out to a random sample of respondents, who were asked only to fill out and return the form if they had children. 8 were returned. The results are set out below: 1. Have you ever been in a relationship with someone who has hit you, kicked you, slapped you, punched you, or threatened to hurt you? 2. CURRENTLY? 3. When you were pregnant did anyone ever physically hurt you? 4. Are you in a relationship with someone who yells at you, calls you names, or puts you down? 7 out of 8 women said they had been in a relationship where they were threatened or hurt 3 out of 8 women said they were currently in a violent relationship 6 women who said they had been abused while pregnant, which implies that their children could have been born into a domestically violent household. 6 out of 8 women said they were in an emotionally abusive relationship These statistics for the Fulham area are quite high. Nearly half of respondents said they had experienced prolonged domestic abuse. It would be useful to conduct a further study on another random sample to see if the two sets of results would correlate. Because under half the sample returned the questionnaires it cannot be said to be representative sample of the Fulham area. Nonetheless the findings do give a surprising insight into the lives of black women in London, showing that abuse, in any form, is a regular occurrence in some people’s lives. Furthermore, because these respondents had children it’s likely that their children have witnessed domestic violence. Future research might look into establishing a comparison study on 20 women who do not have children in an attempt to see whether more cases of abuse occur within relationships where children are present. Questionnaire on teenagers Of the 20 forms which were filled in 9 respondents said they had been involved in or witnessed cases of domestic violence in their lifetime. 1. Have you ever been involved in or witnessed scenes of domestic violence in your family? Was this age 1-5/6-14/15-present? Or all of the above? 2. Were these scenes between your parents/partners? Did they ever directly involve you? Yes: 4 No: 5 3. Were you ever physically hurt during these episodes? Yes: 3 No: 6 4. Were you verbally abused during these episodes? Yes: 9 No: 0 5. How did your experience affect your daily life: 1. Made you shy†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..2 2. Made you sad†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.9 3. Made you angry†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 4. Made you aggressive towards others†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 6. Do you believe your experience to have been detrimental to your ability to enjoy and participate in school? 1. Yes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..3 2. No†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦6 2 out of 9 respondents said they had witnessed or experienced domestic abuse throughout their lives. Just under half of respondents said that they were directly involved in scenes of domestic violence and all respondents said they were verbally abused. The highest percentage(100%) said they had felt sad, while just under half felt aggressive towards other people. Interviews The four cases of domestic violence all revealed the problem of domestic violence to be one associated with isolation and taking place within the privacy of the home. All respondents admitted that they believed domestic violence to have negatively affected their children. Particularly poignant were the accounts of children becoming withdrawn, another aggressive, and another blaming her mother. All these findings are consistent with the secondary research presented in the first section of this dissertation. The interviews provided a surprisingly good response. Some people might be reluctant to admit to the presence of violence in their domestic life, especially if it involves their children, in fear of admitting that they are (directly, or indirectly) causing their child to be unhappy. However, all four respondents answered openly and honestly about their experiences. Conclusion This dissertation has looked into a cross section of the population in the Hammersmith and Fulham area of London. Teenagers and women who were known to have experienced abuse were asked questions about their experiences and both reported feelings of sadness and aggression. Random sample of women with children also revealed that nearly half of the population had experienced a domestic violence act of some kind in their lives. The findings were consistent with the secondary research, such as the study by Piaget 1972, and Cooper 1999, both of which found that young children had difficulty in play activities and social integration, both at pre-school and primary level. The study by Ballonet al on aggressive teenagers also correlated with the responses from the questionnaires handed out at the youth centre. It is not possible to say that there are more domestic violence cases in black communities or that they are caused by demographic and stress factors. A study by Richardson et al on the prevalence of domestic violence against women looked for a correlation between demographic factors and domestic violence. They concluded that black women were least likely to have ever experienced domestic violence compared to their white female counterparts.(Richardson et al 2002:274). The interview with the British mother found that the violence she had experienced was mostly verbal and did not involve physical force directed at her. Out of the four women she was the only one still tube with her husband with whom she had fought with. This is not consistent with the secondary research presented at the beginning which suggested that more black women stayed with their spouses in fear of what might happen if they left. Future research might explore the marital status of black women in the Hammersmith and Fulham area and the stability of the family unit. Interviews with more than one member of a family might also be useful in order to gain a different perspective on the same incidents. To conclude, domestic violence appears to have a negative impact on children and young people. Initial responses might be guilt, fear, sleeplessness and a desire to protect their mother. In pre-schoolchildren the learning ability and playfulness is often damaged by the experience of domestic violence. In children of all ages research has shown that behaviour is modelled on what they see around them, and this can lead to anti-social behaviour to peers and strangers. Longer-term effects include an inability to trust other people, withdrawing from social situations, depression, and in worse cases aggression on the streets, and drug and alcohol abuse.